京都议定书是什么？如何产生作用？

1.What is the Kyoto Protocol?

unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol

全文：unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/cop3/l07a01.pdf#page=24

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on C张家界三日游多少钱limate Change by committing industrialized countries to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report periodically.The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.In its Annex B, the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 36 industrialized countries and the European Union. Overall, these targets add up to an average 5 percent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).

那么具体Annex B要求的工业化国家减排数字如下：

Annex B Party Quantified emission limitation or reduction commitment (percentage of base year or period)

来源：unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/cop3/l07a01.pdf#page=24

Australia 108

Austria 92

Belgium 92

Bulgaria* 92

Canada 94

Croatia* 95

Czech Republic* 92

Denmark 92

Estonia* 92

European

Community 92 梵克雅宝招聘

Finland 92

France 92

Germany 92

Greece 92

Hungary* 94

Iceland 110

Ireland 92

Italy 92

Japan 94

Latvia* 92

Liechtenstein 92蒸汽机原理

Lithuania* 92

Luxembourg 92

Monaco 92

Netherlands 92

New Zealand 100

Norway 101

Poland* 94

Portugal 92

Romania* 92

Russian Federation* 100

Slovakia* 92

Slovenia* 92

Spain 92

Sweden 92

Switzerland 92

Ukraine* 100

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 92

United States of America 93

* Countries that are undergoing the process of transition to a market economy

2. The Kyoto mechanisms

One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms, which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:

（京都议定书制定了三个路径来达成它的目标，也就是：）

International Emissions TradingClean Development Mechanism (CDM)Joint implementation (JI)

制定这些路径是为了构造一个市场的机制来减少温室气体的排放。什么是市场的机制呢？其实就是说，节省下来的排放量，可以作为一个值钱的配额，卖给需要排放温室气体的人。用这种方式，鼓励企业自发的减少排放量，毕竟少排放可以“卖钱”。

那么京都议定书是如何建造这个市场的机制的呢，来一起仔细看看3个路径吧！

（1）The Clean Development Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an 不知火舞图片emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to impleme普京妻子nt an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.

你知道吗？其实C世界男模DM项目的参与者，中国现在占到了一半以上。这个项目主要是通过发展中国家来申请参与减排的设施/技术改造，而发达国家可以予以帮助。而发展中国家节省下来的排放量，可以换作CER，给到发达国家，使他们可以达到京都议定书给他们的减排要求。

The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It is the first global, environmental investmen电脑包品牌t and credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emission offset instrument, CERs.

A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.

The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets.

（2）Joint implementation

unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/mechanisms/joint-implementation

The mechanism known as "joint implementation", localstoragedefined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.Eligibility and approvalA整形双眼皮 JI project must provide a reduction in emissions by sources, or an enhancement of removals by sinks, that is additional to what would otherwise have occurred. Projects must have approval of the host Party and participants have to be authorized to participate by a Party involved in the project.Projects starting as from the year 2000 may be eligibl周大福对戒e as JI projects if theynba2k操作 meet the relevant requirements, but ERUs may only be issued for a crediting period starting after the beginning of 2008.Track 1 and Track 2 proceduresIf a host Party meets all of the eligibility requirements to transfer and/or acquire ERUs, it may verify emission reductions or enhancements of removals from a JI project as being additional to any that would otherwise occur. Upon such verification, the host Party may issue the appropriate quantity of ERUs. This procedure is commonly referred to 积木盒子as the Track 1 procedure.If a host Party does not meet all, but only a limited set of eligibility requirements, verification of emission reductions or enhancements of removals as being additional has to be done through the verification procedure under the Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee (JISC). Under this so-called Track 2 procedure, an independent entity accredited by the JISC has to determine whether the relevant requirements have been met before the host Party can issue and transfer ERUs.A host Party which meets all the eligibility requirements may at any time choose to use the verification procedure under the JISC (Track 2 procedure).

（3）Emissions Trading

unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/mechanisms/emissions-trading

最后，两种减排形成的可以“卖钱”的CERs和 要去哪里交易呢？

就是京都议定书商定的第3个部分，建立Emissions Trading。

Greenhouse gas emissions a new commodity

Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) have accepted targets for limiting or reducing emissions. These targets are expressed as levels of allowed emissions, or assigned amounts,at over the 2008-2012 commitment period. The allowed emissions are divided into assigned amount units (AAUs).

Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets.Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is known as the "carbon market."

Other trading units in the carbon market

More than actual emissions units can be traded and sold under the Kyoto Protocols emissions trading scheme.The other units which may be transferred under the scheme, each equal to one tonne of CO2, may be in the form of:

· A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities such as reforestation

· An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project

· A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanismproject activity

Transfers and acquisitions of these units are tracked and recorded through the registry systems under the Kyoto Protocol.An international transaction log ensures secure transfer of emission reduction units between countries.

3. Parties：Annex I/Non-Annex I

哪些国家是被要求进行减排的，哪些不是呢？我们来看一下京都议定书里的分类。

（1）Annex I-被要求减排国

Last updated on 07.August 2018

Australia

Austria

Belarus

Belgium

Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

Czechia

Denmark

Estonia

European Union

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Italy

Japan

Latvia

Liechtenstein

Lithuania

Luxembourg

英文论文润色Malta

Monaco

Netherlands

New Zealand

Norway

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Russian Federation

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

Ukraine

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

（2）Non-Annex I-其他国家

Last updated on 07.August 2018

Afghanistan

Albania

Algeria

Angola

Antigua and Barbuda

Argentina

Armenia

Azerbaijan

Bahamas

Bahrain

Bang膜片式联轴器ladesh

Barbados

Belize

Benin

Bhutan

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Botswana

快思慢想Brazil

Brunei Darussalam

Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cabo Verde

慢性阻塞性肺疾病Cambodia

Cameroon

Central African Republic

Chad

Chile

China

Colombia

Comoros

Congo

Cook Islands

Costa Rica

Côte d'Ivoire

Cuba

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Djibouti

Dominica

Dominican Republic

Ecuador

Egypt

El Salvador

Equatorial Guinea

Eritrea

Eswatini

Ethiopia

Fiji

Gabon

Gambia

Georgia

Ghana

Grenada

Guatemala

Guinea

Guinea曹格老婆-Bissau

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Guyana

Haiti

Honduras

India

Indonesia

Iran (Islamic Republic of)

Iraq

Israel

Jamaica

Jordan

Kazakhstan

Kenya

Kiribati

Kuwait

Kyrgyzstan

Lao People's Democratic Republic

Lebanon

Lesotho

Liberia

Libya

Madagascar

Malawi

Malaysia

Maldives

Mali

Marshall Islands

Mauritania

Mauritius

Mexico

Micronesia (Federated States of)

Mongolia

Montenegro

Morocco

Mozam635bique

Myanmar

Namibia

Nauru

Nepal

Nicaragua

Niger

Nigeria

Niue

Oman

Pakistan

Palau

Panama

Papua New Guinea

Paraguay

Peru

Philippines

Qatar

Republic of Korea

Republic of Moldova

Rwanda

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint Lucia

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Samoa

San Marino

Sao Tome and Principe

Saudi Arabia

Senegal

Serbia

Seychelles

Sierra Leone

Singapore

Solomon Islands

Somalia

South Africa

Sri Lanka

Sudan

Suriname

Syrian Arab Republic

Tajikistan

Thailand

The Republic of North Macedonia

Timor-Leste

Togo

Tonga

Trinidad and Tobago

Tunisia

Turkmenistan

Tuvalu

Uganda

United Arab Emirates

United Republic of Tanzania

Uruguay

Uzbekistan

Vanuatu

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Viet Nam

Yemen

Zambia

Zimbabwe

4. Greenhouse gases

京都议定书里主张降低的温室气体有哪些呢？以下是京都议定书中对于温室气体的定义：

Annex A

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide (CO )2

Methane (CH )4

Nitrous oxide (N O) 2

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF )

6 Sectors/source categories

Energy

Fuel combustion Energy industries Manufacturing industries and construction Transport Other sectors Other Fugitive emissions from fuelsSolid fuels Oil and natural gas Other

Industrial processes

Mineral products Chemical industry Metal productionOther production Production of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride Consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride Other

Solvent and other product use

Agriculture

Enteric fermentation Manure management Rice cultivation Agricultural soils Prescribed burning of航班取消怎么办 savannas Field burning of agricultural residues Other

Waste

Solid waste disposal on land Wastewater handling Waste incineration Other

参考：unfccc.int/process-and-meetings