Derivative Markets and Instruments
1,定义:
(1)衍生品定义:Financial instruments, derive values from the performance of basic assets;
(2)Basic assets:equity, fixed-income, currency, commodity;对应的市场为cash markets/spot markets;对应的价格为cash prices/spot prices;这些基础资产都可以是衍生品的underlying; 但衍生品的underlying还可以是其他非实物的东西,如interest rate, weather, energy, credit, other derivatives;
(3)Mutual fund, exchange-traded funds不是衍生品的原因:仅仅是pass through the returns of underlying securities;而衍生品是transform the performance of the underlying assets;
(4)衍生品与保险的相似性:有underlying, definite life span, expiration date; risk or source(衍生品的风险即Underlying的value);转移风险,保护免受损失;
(5)买卖双方称呼:
-the long: seller/writer of the derivative;
-the short: seller/writer of the derivative;
2,衍生品分类:
A,forward commitments:未来双方要被强制交易,有买卖的义务obligation;
-forward contracts:远期合约
(1)交易场所:OTC交易;定制化customized contract;
(2)交易义务/违约:双方虽然有义务执行交易,但不受监管,任何一方都可能违约renege on the obligation(但并不是双方同时违约,同一时间只会一方违约),另一方则需要提供正式合同诉诸法院解决;最终一方Lose,另一方gain;
(3)价值/价格:初始价值0,无金钱往来,既不是资产也不是负债;随着时间推移,价值发生变化max.(0, St-X)或者max.(0, X-St),到期是的价值一般不会是0;价格forward price不会发生变化;
(4)交割:settelment by delivery or cash; 如果是cash settlement,又称为non delivery forwards, cash settled forwards, contracts for differences; 两种交易方式的economic effect是一样的;
(5)流通性:较差
-futures;期货
(1)交易场所:futures fexchange;标准化合同;
(2)交易义务/违约:双方有交易义务,受监管regulated at the national level,无违约风险;如果一方违约,clearinghouse provides gurantee弥补另一方损失,by maintaining an insurance fund。理论上如果这个保险基金被depleted消耗完了,clearinghouse就会向其他参与者征税levy a tax(实际还未发生过)
(3)价值/价格:初始价值0,无金钱往来,但需要缴纳保证金给交易所;end of each day, 通过逐日盯市结算,然后effectivly resetting the value for each party to 0.期货到期时的合约价格即spot price;
Mark to market/daily settlement逐日盯市:每天结算gain/loss,清算所提供保障,clearinghouse moves money between pariticipants;后股穴
结算价格Settlement price: 清算所将交易日当天最后交易的futures的平均价格定义为settlement price;
The clearinghouse determines an average of the final futures trades of the day and designates
that price as the settlement price.
margin account:权益Equity里,会有信用额度extension of credit,投资人存一部分钱,再以一定的利息借一部分钱;但是期货的margin account,交易双方都要缴纳保证金,剩余的remainder of price is not borrowed;
initial margin: <10% of the futures price, 比equity margin要小;
maintenance margin: 交易一旦开始,每个参与者必须存入的一笔维持保证金,一般比initial margin要低很多;
margin call:如果是futures,要补交到Initial margin;如果是equity,交到maintenace margin; 全天交易期间都可以打margin call,而非一天结束的时候再打;
price limit: a band relative to the previous day's settlement price, within wich all trades must occur;帮助clearinghouse管控信用敞口credit exposure;交易双方同意按照一个超过price limit的价格交易,并不能代表他们可以交易。clearinghouse是合同的第三方,要确保双方不会违约;clearing house has a vested interest既得利益in the price and considerable exposure;
Invested interest: 清算所享有的既得利益
Open interest:期货交易所还未到期的所有合同数量,number of outstanding contracts;;
Forward和Futures其他对比:
(1)盈利时间不同:futures mark-to-market每日结算,每天结算后价值回归到0;forward是到期时一次性结算;
(2)利率不同,购买者倾向会不同:利率低的时候,一般影响不大;但操作时,利率高,倾向于futures;利率低,倾向于forward;
-swaps:two parties exchange a series of cash flows;浮动换浮动;固定换浮动;一系列的forward;(1)交易场所:OTC;
(2)交易义务/违约:和forward一样,有违约风险;任何一方都可以违约,但同一个时间,只会一方违约(the party owing greater amount can default to the partying owing less); 公司广泛使用;
fixed for floating interest rate swap/plain vanilla swap/vanilla swap:固定换浮动利率互换;操作流程:
某公司向银行浮动利率借款,担心利率损失,故找到swap dealer购买一个swap,支付swap dealer固定利率,swap dealer将贷款的浮动利率支付给公司,公司再将此部分收到的浮动利率支付给银行;(实际swap是只支付net rate,例如支付的固定利率为5%,而收到的浮动利率为6%,则实际收到的浮动利率为6%-5%)
notional principal: swap没有principal,但是notional principal,即balance of sorts;notional principal不参与exchange(故风险小于loan)
(3)价格/价值:初始价值0,随着市场情况的变化,swap的价值会逐渐倾向一方为正,一方为负;
Basis swap:浮动换浮动;TED spread: Libor和T-bill rate之间的差异 (T-bill vs Eurodollar), a measure of credit risk premium of London banks;
B,contingent claims:或有权利:买卖双方的权利right,而非义务obligation;是放弃行权,还是行权,取决于particular random outcome;
(1)Payoff: Linear payoff线性回报,
(2)交易地点:OTC或者exchanges
(3)分类:
-option期权
Put option: right to sell;看跌bearish point of view;损失有限,盈利也有限,profit=max.(0,X-St)-P,St不可能低于0,故盈利是有限的;同样如果损失,最多也就是P期权费;类似保险:买了put option就类似买了保险,如果Underlying按照预料下降,保险或者Put option都会触发payoff, max.(0, X-St),如果Underlying上升,也就是损失保费/期权费;
Call option: right to buy,看涨bullish point of view;
American style option:到期前可以交易;
European style option:到期才可以交易;
Bermuda style:美式和欧式综合,规定时间段可以交易;
(4)违约:Long方是购买的一个权利,故有权选择行权还是不行权,故不存在违约一说。会违约的只会是short方,因为short方是出售了一个义务,只要Long方要行权,short方就得有这个交易的义务,故有违约的可能;(这点和forwards/swap不同,他们是任何一方都可能违约,只是不会同时违约。)
-credit derivative: total return swap, credit spread swap(holder=long a call option), credit default swap, credit linked note
-ABS: ABS holder=seller/writer of put option
(5)Option相关术语:
Exercise price/strike price/striking price/strike:行权价;合同上事先定义;
Option premium:买option的人支付给writer/seller的费用;the present value of the cash flows that are expected to be received by tccbphe holder of the option during the life of the option.
(5)盈利:payoffs of contingent claim/option, not linearly related to payoff of the underlying;整个payoff与underlying不呈线性关系,但区间是,如0-X,以及X后是呈线性关系的;
名称期初金钱往来/期初价值权利/义务价格ProfitForward/futures/swap无义务不变St-XOption/CDS有 option premium权利不变call: Max.(0,St-x)-CPut: Max.(0,X-St)-P3,衍生品优点:
(1)风险转移/风险管理: a simple, effective and low cost way to transfer risk;例如公司股票持有人可以通过该股票的衍生品交易,减少甚至emilinate market exposure;
(2)Easy to go short;
(3)投入资本少(高杠杆high degree of leverage); underlying价格的小波动,可能带来衍生品市场的大盈利、大损失;
(4)交易成本低;流动性高;
-衍生品目的:
(1)risk allocation, transfer and management;主要目的;注意:risk management定义:将风险控制在自己愿意接受的水平,让风险水平可衡量,并使其达到自己愿意接受的水平;衍生品是风险管理,但并非说确保没有large loss;
(短片小说2)information discovery:价格发现;
futures的价格有预测性这句话严格说不正确,因为他并不是真正预测未来的spot prices。但提供比spot price更多一点信息,尤其是decentralized market,如黄金;由于需要的资金少,价格传递在衍生品市场会比spot market快。
衍生品可以reveal 持有者可以拿到且avoid risk的价格
implied volatility:即Option中现货价格的波动, measure expected risk of underlying; option提供投资者对于市场不确定性看法的信息 information about what investors think of uncertainty in the market;
(3)Operational advantage:交易成本低, 流动性好,方便做空;
(4)Market efficiency:价格和fundamental value出现偏差时,衍生品市场发现Mispricing的成本低,且价格差更早在衍生品市场出现;
4,衍生品的批评criticism:
(1)Speculation, gambling: 衍生品被批评为legalized gambling
-投机的正面意义:越多投机者参与,对冲风险的成本就越低;投机一般是对冲基金和其他愿意承担风险大 投资者;
-投机的负面:被认为类似赌博,总的形象仍然负面,被认为价格操作,纳税多;
-投机和赌博的不同:赌博值对小部分参与者受益,对整个社会没有帮助;衍生品对金融市场以及整个社会都有好处;
-投机和赌博类似点:take risk to profit;
(2)Destablize the financial system/destablization and system risk:不稳定,系统风险
-正因为前面提到的所谓有点(低成本,容易做空等)导致,过度投机,给市场带来动荡;high leverage;投机者违会导致债权人creditor,债权人的债权人等一系列违约;
(3)Compliexity复杂性:因为其复杂性,金融行业聘请大量数学家,物理学家,电脑技术科学家;而使用科学方法构建的复杂的市场模型,经常失效;
5,衍生品交易市场:
(1)Exchange-Traded derivatives market:
-market maker/dealer,speculator都是交易所exchange的会员own membership;
-Scalping:抽头转卖,即Market maker可以同时用不同价格进行买和卖,locking small short term profit
-Clearing清算:交易所verifies execution of a transaction and records participants' identities;
-Clearinghouse:如果亏损方不付钱,清算所为盈利方提供保证guarantee,并由清算所支付给盈利方;清算所能够提供该保证,是因为他提前收取了保证金margin bond/performance bond;
-Settlement交割:交易所transfers money from one participant to the other, from participant to exchange, 或相反方向;
-衍生品市场的优点:清算和交割overnight即可完成,而股票市场securities market需要2个工作日;
(2)OTC derivatives marekt:又称为dealer market
-主要市场参与者:dealer,主要是银行,international swaps和Derivatives association(ISDA)的成员;
-由于是定制化,多数时候没法同时按照不同的价格进行买和卖来盈利
类型合同内容违约风险流通性透明度监管Exchange标准化无高完全透明力度大OTC客制化有低相对隐私Less regulated6,信用衍生品Credit derivative:属于option
(1) 信用衍生品Credit derivative和保险区别:保险Highly regulated, consumer oriented laws;信用衍生品更灵活;
(2)信用衍生品定义: credit protection buyer和seller之间的衍生合约,credit protection seller提供给buyer信用损失的保护;
(3)credit derivative分类:
a, total return swap: underlying: bond/loan,
b, credit spread option: underlying; credit/yield spread on a bond, bond yield和无风险bond收益benchmark之间的差异;由于该种期权要求将利差credit spread作为标的物,那么这种衍生品就只能是traded bond that has a quoted price;购买方在交易之初选择期望的目标利差,支付期权费给seller。到期时,双方通过对比bond的利差与选定的目标利差之间的差异, 卖方支付给买方established payoff;本质上是call option(利差有利就行权,没有利,就不行权),标的物是credit spread,持有者定义了行权价,支付期权费,随后根据市场利差和目标利差之间的差异变化来决定是否行权;
c, credit linked note:
d, credit default swap:最成功,使用最广泛的信用衍生品;拥有保险的大部分基本特征,还能避开传统保险产品的消费者强监管;avoid high degree of consumer regulations;
CDS买卖双方之间签订的衍生合约,买方支付一些列的payment给卖方,如果第三方违约,会收到credit loss的补偿;买房通常是持有bond,但是担心bond会违约,故购买CDS,定期支付前给卖方;seller在信用违约事件credit event发生时,才make payment;合同上会列明什么情况是credit event;(一般是借钱出去的人购买,即银行担心贷款人违约,从CDS SELLER中购买CDS,一旦贷款人违约,CDS seller会赔付)
CDS的卖方:一般都是银行或保险公司,定期收取费用,一旦第三方违约,就支付给买方赔偿费;
7,ABS, asset backed securities:
(1)定义:衍生品合约,将debt打包组合,claim进行分层,prepayment和credit loss按照不同分层承担;属于option(contingent on prepayment和default), ABS持有者是卖了一个put option, writer/seller of put option:如果稳定,收益固定;如果利率降低,提前还款,ABS持有者收益就降低,收益公式:-max(0,X-St)
(2)与ETF, m淘宝主图视频utual fund差异:ETF和mutual fund与实际持有bond一样,pass through value of underlying,所有购买者的rate of return是一样的;而ABS alter the payment streams,是衍生品, derive the value from value of the underlying,且不同分层持有人的收益是不同的;
(3)主要类别:
-CMO:collateral mortage obligation, 将按揭mortgage整合进ABS;如CDS,通常(非绝对)可以减少或者甚至去除信用风险;CMO分层:A,B,C,层级依次降低;遇到Prepayment时,C先被偿还;
-CBO:collateralized bond obligation或者CLO, collateralized loan obligation,或者CDO,collateralized debt obligation:将债权整合进AB34dS: 一般没有prepayment risk但还是有credit risk;CBO/CLO/CDO分层:senior, messanine, junior tranches/euity tranches,发生违约时,junior/equity tranch最先bear risk;然后是mezzanine,最后才是senior tranches; 预期回报和风险相匹配,风险高的预期回报高:junior/equity>mezzaine>senior;
8,衍生品标的物Derivative underlying
(1)Equity权益:
-股票:一般是option,futures/forward/swap很少;企业使用得多,用于奖励其员工,可以让员工便宜购买;或者发行warrant给the public;
-股票指数:option, forward, futures, swap都很常见;index swap更长叫做equity swap,广泛使用,允许投资者支付一个股票指数的收益,收回另一个股票指数的收益或者收回一个固定收益;
(2)Fixed income and interest rate 固收债券和利率:futures, foward, swap, option都常用;
-以bond为标的物的衍生品问题:发行债券的主体多,一个债券的发行者本身又有多个outstanding bond。如果是futures,其标准化就是个挑战。通常是允许不同主体发行的债券放在一个futures合约里。这就会导致定价扭曲,影响交易策略;
-利率作为标的物:使用最广泛的衍生品标的物,可以是swap,option,例如:plain vanilla interest rate swap, LIBOR为标的物;
(3)Currencies货币: option, forward, futures, swap均可:
-currency swap:两种不同货币,两种风险:currency risk, interest rate risk;
(4)Commodities大宗商品:主要是futures, 其他的forward, swap, option也用;
financial futures的诞生,commodity和financial traders变得没什么区别;
(5)Credit信用:
(6)其他:weather, electricity, disaster (insurance claim)
9,衍生品市场大小:(了解即可)总得来说,很难measure
OTC市场根据两个要素来measure: notional principal和market value
Notional principal是写在合同里的固定数字,容易Overstate risk,因为实际交易的时候是net value;
Market value就是实际交易中net value=present value of one stream payment-present value of the other(实际支付的净值);故如果不考虑说notional principal是一个明确的值的话unambiguous,其实market value来评估更好一些;但用Market value来评估,可能出现的问题就是双方对于这个值可能不认可;
10,资产定价:
(1)术语:
-Convenience yield: nonmonetary advantage of holding the asset持有资产获得的非金钱收益,sth. opaque and difficult to measure;一般是大宗商品产生的,难卖空(市场建议售出,同时很难卖空)或者紧缺商品;Convenience yields are primarily associated with commodities and generally exist as a result of difficulty in either shorting the commodity or unusually tight supplies.
-Cost of carry:持有成本
-Net cost of carry=cost of carry-benefit
(2)资产定价相关因素:
(1)投资者风险喜好;衍生品定价原则是获取无风险利率,故跟衍生品定价无关,但asset定价有关,要定风险溢价;
Risk-neutral investor: willing to engage in risky investments, to earn only risk-free rate; not expect premium for bearing risk;
Risk-averse investor: 不考虑无风险利率,要求超额收益compensate risk;要求risk premium;高风险低价格;
Risk-seeking investor: perfer risk over certainty, pay more to invest for risky asset, 是negative risk premium
(2)资产定价公式:
-S0=E(St)/(1+r+γ)^T,E(St)为资产预期将来价格,S0现值,r无风险利率,γ风险溢价risk premium;
-S0=【E(St)/(1+r+γ)^T 】-θ+γ,θ为carry cost的现值, γ为benefit的现值
11,衍生品定价
11.1 术语:
-Hedge portfolio:通过构建衍生品和标的物的组合,消除风险,最终挣得无风险利率;衍生品的价值就是迫使hedge portfolio挣无风险利率的衍生品价格;A derivative’s value is the price of the derivative that forces the hedge portfolio to earn the risk-free rate.
-Arbitrage:套利遵循原则low of one price,一价原则,相同asset价格应该相同;套利所得是属于abnormal return;不需要投入自己的钱,就能挣得no risk return; 但注意不代表完全不用花钱,是要借钱筹集资金的,只是不需要花费自己的钱;
套利过程:两个价值相同的asset,售价不同,故买入低价格的,卖出高价格的,故at the start,套利者收到net cash=卖出高价-买入低价,且后续不需要付钱出去,套利最后是no money gained or lost,故无风险;
套利的限制Limits to arbitrage:
(1)套利也需要capital,并不是人人都能借到足够的钱去套利;有时候一些套利还需要capital to maintain positions; 有些交易流通性不好,可能出现理论上对冲了,实际上可能需要付钱出去;
(2)套利需要确切的信息,如果lack accurate information on the model inputs(缺乏对标的资产波动性认识的话,input可能就不对,得出的套利机会可能也不对),有些套利可能是有风险的;
(3)套利需要卖空,有时候可能实际很难卖空;比如有些股票人家就不愿意借,或者一些产品就很难卖空,笔记本电脑这样的话,套利可能就只能往一个方向跑too high或者too low;
(4)套利能否实现依赖于其他投资者最终意识到定价错误mispricing,如果其他投资者没有意识到,不跟进,就不能成功套利;
-Hedge对冲: Long asset+short derivative=risk free asset (bond),整个过程中价格一致,否则就会存在套利机会;
-Replication: 创造一个asset或从其他asset中组合一个,creation of an asset or portfolio from another asset, protfolio or derivative; 复制的本质是套利,essence of arbitrage,有利可图或者交易成本低(例如shot derivative+short risk free asset比直接Long asset费用低)
long asset + short derivative=risk free asset
long asset+shot risk free asset=long derivative
short risk free asset+shot derivative=long asset
-Risk aversion: 风险厌恶与资产定价相关,但与衍生品定价无挂,衍生品定价是假设无套利空间,用risk free rate来定价,又称risk-neutral pricing;arbitrage-free pricing, principal of no arbitrage;
(2)Forward、Futurs, Option价格及价值:
11.2 、定价准则:无套利原则
Forward/futures/swap price: one of the terms agreed on when contract was created;订立合约时规定的一个价格,使合约价值为0,无套利空间的一个价格;
11.2.1、Forward/futures 合约价格:
F(T)=S*(1+r)^T,合约价格即资产现价compounded at risk free rate over life of the contract;
F(T)=(S+carry cost-benefit)*(1+r)^T=(S-net cost of carry)*(1+r)^T=S(1+r)^T-(benefit-carry cost)*(1+r)^T
合约价格即资产现价按照无风险利率复利减去(benefit和 carry cost,net carry cost)的future value;
Net cost of carry=benefit - carry cost
11.2.2、Forward/futures 合约价值:
Forward/futures/swap value: amount of wealth represented by owning the contract; value=asset price-contract price(long方,如果是short方,则相反);即,
(1)合约到期时,标的物的现货价格spot price减去合约规定的价格;合约初始阶段,价值为0,合约既不是资产也不是负债;S(T)-F(T)
(2)合约未到期时:标的资产spot price-合约价格的现值(Present value), S(t)-F(T)/[(1+r)^(T-t)],注意T要以年为单位;如果还有期间的carry cost和benefit,则合约价值为value=S(t)-net carry cost*(1+r)^t-F(T)/[(1+r)^(T-t)];
*衍生合约forgo benefits,avoid carrying costs。故衍生合约的价值要downward to reflect the forgone benefits, upward to reflect the avoided carrying costs(注意都需要折现到0时刻);
11.2.3 Forward rate agreement:远期利率合约
(1)标的物:interest rate利率,与其他衍生合约的不同点,标的物是利率,非asset;一般是libor作为标的物,或者Euribor, Tibor等;
(2)操作:允许先支付known interest rate,然后再将来收unknown interest rate;
(3)合成FRA, synthetic FRA:
Long a 30-day FRA on 90-day Libor=Long a 120-day Eurodollar time deposit+short a 30-day Eurodollar time deposit,30天后付一个固定的90天利率,120天后收一个浮动的90-day libor;
11.2.4 利率与Futures/fowar心理咨询师就业d的关系:
(1)如果合约价格与利率没有关系,则futures price和forward price一样,买哪个都一样;
(2)如果合约价格与利率呈正向关系Positively related,则倾向于futures price;因为futures price是Mark to market,每天结算盈利,如果利率高,价格高,再投资收入高;利率低,价格低,损失得少;氟塑料rising prices lead to futures profits that are reinvested in periods of rising interest rates, and falling prices leads to losses that occur in periods of falling interest rates;
(3)如果合约价格与利率呈反向关系opposite interpretation,倾向于forwards;
投资者倾向的合约,其价格就会更高。现实中,衍生品行业将futures和foward price几乎视为相同。除非特别说明,否则都视为没有差异。
11.2.5 Swap 价格/价值
(1)内涵:
Swap本质上市一系列forwards,在OTC市场交易;
(2)价格:固定换浮动的话,每期的固定payment金额一样,但浮动的Payment则不同
(3)价值:最初定的swap contract 价值为0:意味着所有期的价值之和为0,而初期定义的时候就一定没有payment exchange;
通常初期无payment exchange,第一期价值为0,但这只是customary约定俗成的,并不是mandatory一定要初始无Payment交换。
-At-market forward: 以0价值开始的foward
-Off-market forward: a forward transaction that starts with a nonzero value;
但如上所述,无论是at-market forward,还是off-market forward,初期价值之和为0;(无套利原则定价)
11.2.6 Option 价格和价值
(1)与Forward, futures, swap不同点:对于持有者来说是一个asset,,对于seller来说是liability;
Long an option:支付premium, 拥有买或者卖的权利,选择权利right;
Short an option:收取premium, 是有买或者卖的义务obligation,没得选;
(2) Option的类别:叫美式还是欧式,跟交易地点没关系;
American option:随时可以交易;
European option: 只能在到期时交易;
Bermuda option:在指定时间可以交易;
(3) 欧式期权到期时价值:
-内在价值:exercise value, intrinsic value
Call option: Max. (0, ST-X), greater of zero or the value of the underling minus the exercise price
Put option: Max. (0, X-ST), greater of zero or the exercise price minus the value of the underlying
ST:到期时(T时刻),资产的spot price;
X:合约价格;
-标的物价值对option价值的影响:
Call option:标的物价值forms 给call设定界限;call option价值不会比标的物价值高;Underling 给call设定来上限,但不会给Put设上下限;
如上公式,标的物价值与call option的价值成正比directly related;与put option呈反比,inversly related;
-行权价格对option价值的影响:
期权的货币性moneyness:即期权是in, at还是out of the money;
(1)in the money: call: ST>X;put: X>ST,行权
(2)at the money: call/put, ST=X
(3)out of the money: call: ST<X,put: X<ST,不行权
Put option:
行权价格设置了其期权价值的上限,未到期前,其最大价值是行权价格X,按照无风险利率折现到underlying价格为0的时刻;
Payoff/intrinsic value: Put option: max.(0, X-ST), Call option: max.(0, ST-X)
故行权价格与call option是反向关系inversly related, 与put option是正向关系directly related;
-距离到期日的时间影响:
Eurepean call option与到期时间成正比;put option与到期时间可能正比也可能反比;通常是正比,但当折现无风险利率很高的时候,或者deep in the money的时候,呈反比;
Call:时间越长,价值越高;随着时间推移,ST可能会更高;但是ST即使降到比X低,损失的也只是期权费;
Put: 时间越长,价值可能高,也可能越低;有time penalty,因为时间越长,可能受东风41洲际导弹到的钱的折现值就会变少;
-利率对期权价值的影响
European call:与利率正比;European option:与利率反比;
Call:到期时间越长,利率越高,说明自己支付出去的钱的现值就会越低,故欧式期权价值与利率呈正比;
Put:到期时间越长,利率越高,自己要收到的钱的现值就会越低,故欧式期权价值与利率呈反比;
-Underlying volatility对期权价值的影响:
非系统性波动,可以通过分散组合的方式去消除影响,故非系统性波动没有什么太大关系irrelavant;
标的物波动性,即标的物return的标准差standard deviation,与平均回报的偏差variation;
Eurepean call/put与标的物的波动都呈正比关系directly related;
-time value: differenence between market price of option and intrinsic price
即期权的价格market price=max.(0, ST-X)+time value
-标的物付款和cost of carry对期权价值的影响:
Payments on underlying: dividend, interest
European call: 与benefit创业品牌s呈反比,与carrying cost呈正比;(benefits多,这个是underlying hoder享有,Option holder没能享有到,故Option的价值要相应减少;carrying多,underlying hoder付出的钱就多,那么option hoder需要补偿给underlying holder的钱就增加,故期权价值增加;)
Eureopan put:与benefit成正比,与carrying cost呈反比;
11.2.7,期权价值的底限lowest value of European option:
European call:max. (0, value of the underlying-present value of exercise), max.(0, S0-艺术留学摄影作品集X/(1+r)^T)
European put: max.(0, present value of exercise-value of underlying), max.(0, X/(1+r)^T-S0)
T即距离到期日的时间的年化;
如行权价60USD,无风险利率4%,还有9个月到期,T=9/12=0.75,如果S0=70,
则Min. call price=max.(0, 70-60/(1+4%)^0.75)=11.74
Min. put price=max.(0,60/(1+4%)^0.75-70)=0
12,Put-call parity, put-call-forward parity: 以下均讨论European option
12.1 Put-call parity: P+S=B+C,即the put price plus the price of the underlying equals the call price plus the present value of the exercise pr专四答案ice,
(1) Protective put: holding a asset and a put
asset+put option (P+S)
即投资者拥有一个资产,现价S0,但是未来ST会降低,故再购买一个put option;
当ST>X,put option的价值max.(0, X-ST)为0,无需行权,而此时资产价值ST,资产+put option的整体position是ST,put option无需行权;
若ST<X,put option的价值是max.(0, X-ST)为X-ST,行权;资产价值ST,整position是X;
如上,如果资产将来行情好,可以或得无上限的收益,而如果不好,downside performance也会截止到truncated at X。
(2) Fiduciary call: holding a call and a risk free asset
risk free asset+call option (B+C)
risk free asset为一个risk free 0-coupon bond,到期的面值为X
如果资产价格ST>X,call option的价值max(0, ST-X)为ST-X,期权行权;作为无风险资产的债券到期收到面值X;故整体价值为ST;
如果资产价格ST<X,call option的价值max.(0, ST-X)为0,不行权;债券到期收到X,整体价值为X;
综上,可得出如下:
项目ST>XST<XPut opion+asset(protective put)STXCall option+risk free asset(risk free 0-coupon bond)(fiduciary call)STX故protective put=fiduciary call
Put option+asset=call option+bond (risk free 0-coupon bond, risk free recyclerviewasset)
对于投资者A而言,一开始支付的钱committed fund为:S0+p0(p辽国ut option premium);而B支付的钱为:c0(call option premium)+X/(1+r)^T;bond在购买时候的价格是未来面值折现后的价值;
S0+p0=c0+X/(1+r)^T,即put-call parity
put-call parity并不能告诉我们哪个价格正确,我们通过一个车震被抓价格,利用等式可以得出另一个价格;并且可以了解put和cal菊花航空l price之间的差异,如上公式变形p0-c0=X/(1+r)^T-S0
12.2 Put-call威斯敏斯特教堂-forward parity:
(1)synthetic protective put:
long a asset+short a derivative=long a risk free asset
故long a asset=long a risk free asset+long a derivative
Synthetic protective put=long risk free bond+long foward+long put
Protective put with forward contractST>XST<XbondF0(T)F0(T)forward contractST-F0(T)ST-F0(T)put: max.(0, X-ST)0X-STTotalSTXput-call-forward parity: P+F0(T)/(1+r)^T=X/(1+r)T+C,the put price plus the value of a risk-free
bond with face value equal to the forward price equals the call price plus the value of a risk-free
bond with face value equal to the exercise price.
13, 期权二叉树模型定价Binomial valuation of options
13.1 琐碎知识点:
(1)Option和futures, forward, swap的payoff计算方式差异:
期权的Payoff公式:max.(0, ST-X) for call, max.(0, X-ST) for put, X行权价格是期初已知的,故唯一的不确定性即资产的现价only element of uncertainty is price of underlying; option payoff 显微镜的使用is determinted by underlying; 更进一步,payoff不是由underlying 本身的价格决定,而是一个比较值,underlying price和exercise price之间对比;
注意forward, futures和swap的payoff,仅仅是ST-F0(T)
13.2 二叉树模型:
(1)定义:
用上下两种movement得出2种可能结果来给期权定价的方式;
(2)涉及公式:
所有公式基于:long a asset+shot a derivative=long a risk free asset
这个组合的价值V=hS-C
公式一:
h=(c+-c-)/(s+-s-),表示的是sell a call,是等于h个underlying
c+: call option在underlying价格上升的payoff; c-:call option在underlying价格下降的payoff
s+: underlying 上升后的价格;s-:underlying下降后的价格;
公式二:
π=(1+r-d)/(u-私活网d)
r:无风险利率;d:下降比例d=S-/S0,u:上升比例S+/S0
c0=[πc++(1-π)c-]/(1+r)
call option的现有价值即:到期时,call 上下浮动的可能价格加权,weighted average of the nwxt twoo possible call prices at expiration;
期权定价公式里注意要点:
(1)标的物的volatility是决定期权价值很重要的因素;公式中有u=S+/S0, d=S-/S0
(2)up和down的可能性并没有出现在公式中;
(3)权重π和(1-π)和概率类似,被称为合成概率或者伪概率, synthetic probability或者pseudo probability;
(4)公式取的是an expected future value (S+, S-都是未来的价值),用risk free rate折现
定价公式启示:
(1)如果波动增加,期权价格上升;
(2)标的物价格的实际上升和下降的概率跟定价无关;
(3)实际上升和下降概率被synthetic/pseudo probabilites取代,又被称为risk-neutral probabilites:
(4)风险中性概率是用来find a synthetic expected value, 会用risk free rate折现得来;
因此,期权定价时基于投资者风险中性的假设来的;即投资者风险偏好跟期权定价无关;
(5)V=hS+C
如果不遵循二叉树定价原则,如call的价格太高,则出售call,购买h份underlying,最后call的价格会因为套利者的交易而降价;如果underlying价格太高,则出售买call,出售h份underlying;
14,American option定价:
14.1 欧式vs美式期权定价:
(1)美式期权和欧式期权定价对比:
美式期权可以在到期前任意时间行权,只有payoff>0时才会行权,故美式期权(无论call还是put)的价格不可能低于欧式期权;
(2)最低值:
欧式期权:call price≥max.(0, S0-X/(1+r)^T); put price≥max.(0, X/(1+r)^T-S);注意区分:欧式期权Payoff: call: max.(0, ST-X)到期时的underlying价格ST;T为到到期日剩余时间;
美式期权:call price最小值与欧式期权一样;但是put price≥max.(0, X-S)
推导call的最小值一样的过程:
正常美式:call price≥max.(0, S0-X), put price≥max.(0, X-S0),通过公式可以看出来,如果是call的话,欧式期权的最小值大于或者等于美式期权的最小值;但实际情况是美式期权不可能低于欧式期权,故最后取值和欧式一样;
14.2:影响美式期权early exercise的因素:
-对于美式call option:
(1) 唯一会让美式期权提前行权的原因是underlying有cash flow:如期权underlying为股票:分红,如果有分红消息出来,会导致投资者提前行权;原因:分红后,股价会马上下跌;或者期权underlying为bond: coupon interest有变化;
(2) carrying cost: 如果carrying cost比较大,也会削弱early exercise的动力;仓储成本让投资者更倾向于持有option而非拥有资产;
-美式Put option:
(1) 美式put option的最小值始终高于欧式put option,这使得美式put option更容易提前行权;
(2) 如果美式put option是deep in the money(underlying的价值不可能比0还低,最高payoff也就是X),也会提前行权;而美式call即使dee照片头像p in the money,时间价值也会使得投资者不会提前行权;
(3) coupon interest/dividend:会使美式put更不可能提前行权less likely to early exercise,因为max.(0, X-S),分红后,S变低,payoff更高;
(4)carrying cost: 如果高,会促使美式put提前行权;
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